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Cho Kwangjo (, 23 August 1482 – 10 January 1520), also called by his art name Chŏngam (), was a Neo-Confucianism scholar who pursued radical reforms during the reign of Jungjong of Joseon in the early 16th century.
He was framed with charges of factionalism by the power elite that opposed his reform measures and was sentenced to drink poison in the Third Literati Purge of 1519.“Later, the king ordered Jo to be put to death by drinking poison… Jo Gwang‑jo died in 1519 at age 37.”, KBS World (2010). He has been widely venerated as a Confucian martyr and an embodiment of "seonbi spirit" by later generations in Korea. Some historians consider him one of the most influential figures in 16th century Korea. He is known as one of the 18 Sages of Korea () and is enshrined in the Munmyo. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, September 15, 1604. No. 4
At this time, Joseon Dynasty politics were primarily marked by the power struggle between two aristocratic yangban factions - the established "Hungu" power elites who were generally conservative and the upstart Sarim scholars called , who belonged to the Neo-Confucianism school of Kim Chong-jik and other thinkers. The Sarim faction had entered court politics during the reign of King Seongjong in the late 15th century but suffered two bloody purges under his successor Yeonsangun. When Yeonsangun was eventually deposed in 1506, Jungjong was placed on the throne as the eleventh king of Joseon by the Hungu leaders who led the coup. For first ten years of his reign, Jungjong could not truly rule the country with regal authority (he was forced to depose his faithful queen because her father was killed by the coup leaders, and they feared that the queen might take revenge.) However, three main coup leaders died of natural causes by then, and Jungjong began to welcome Sarim scholars to his court to check the Hungu faction's power. The Sarim faction considered the Hungu faction as a whole as greedy and corrupt men unworthy of respect and sought to establish an ideal neo-Confucian society. Indeed, many of coup leaders had enjoyed Yeonsangun's favor during most of his reign, and their leader Pak Wŏnjong led the coup mainly for personal revenge for his older sister who had rumors of adultery.
Cho Kwangjo came from a prominent family that belonged to the Hungu faction but was called "crazy man" and "source of disaster" by people around him for studying neo-Confucianism under exiled Sarim scholar Kim Gwoeng-pil at the height of persecution of the Sarim faction. In 1510, Cho passed the kwagŏ exam and became a student at the Sungkyunkwan. He was often recommended for a court position by high officials and fellow students at the Sungkyunkwan, but he delayed entering civil service to pursue further study until 1515, when he was recommended to King Jungjong by Minister of Personnel An Tang along with 200 Sungkyunkwan students and was immediately appointed to a position of junior sixth rank. However, he was ashamed to take office with others' help and took Al-seung-si exam, and his essay caught Jungjong's attention.
By then, Cho was already known for his unbending and outspoken character as he soon emerged as the leader of the Sarim faction. For instance, when he became a jung-un, lowest position at Office of Censors, the first thing he did on the following day was to petition the king to fire all his superiors at the Office of Censors and Office of Inspector General. At the time, two Sarim officials had petitioned the king to restore status of the deposed queen, who was deposed by the Hungu faction. The Office of Inspector General and Office of Censors had them exiled for their impertinent petition. Cho argued that two offices violated their given function by suppressing free speech and petitioned the king to fire his superiors or accept his resignation since he could not work with them. To the surprise of everyone, Jungjong replaced everyone in two offices except Cho. This event reflected Jungjong's complete trust and confidence in Cho, who rose in a series of unprecedented promotions from rank of junior sixth rank to junior second rank in only three years.
Cho and his supporters then pushed forth a series of radical reforms as they established local self-government system called Hyang'yak to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among people. In this system, deference was placed according to seniority of villagers rather than their social status. The Sarim faction also sought to reduce gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers equally and limit amount of land and number of slaves that one could own. This measure also targeted Hungu faction's accumulation of land and wealth.KBS World, January 23, 2010, "Cho Kwangjo, Reformer who dreamt ideal neo-Confucianism"
Deeply influenced by Zhu Xi's neo-Confucianism, Cho believed that ideal world of mythical Chinese Emperor Yao and Shun, could be achieved if all people from the king down to the low-born became morally refined and followed Confucius' teachings. The Sarim faction therefore promulgated Confucian writings among the populace by translating them in Korean hangul and distributing them widely. They also suppressed Buddhism and Taoism as superstitious religions by destroying the royal Taoist temple and confiscating properties of Buddhist temples. As Inspector General, he impeached many officials for corruption and bribery. According to the Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because of such strict enforcement. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, October, 1520 He also sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats and their wages.
Cho also believed that any talented people including slaves should be appointed as officials regardless of social status. He was said to judge people by moral character and did not greet superior officials if he considered them of unworthy characters while he was courteous even to his servants. For instance, he formed a friendship with a butcher/tanner of lowest class (baekjeong) who did not even have a name and admired his learning so much that he discussed state affairs with him and wanted to appoint him as a court official. But the tanner repeatedly refused Cho's offer and then disappeared without a trace according to the Narratives of Yŏllyŏsil (), a collection of official and unofficial history books compiled by Yi Kŭng'ik () in late Joseon Dynasty. (It is said that King Injong, Jungjong's successor who admired his tutor Cho, listed the "tanner" as Chief State Councillor for his future cabinet for he was greatly admired by Cho.) According to famous Korean philosopher Yi I, Cho was admired so much by populace that when he appeared on streets people gathered before him saying, "Our master is coming." Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, September 21, 1562: "When Cho Kwangjo became Inspector General and passed the streets, everyone on street bowed to pay their respects. The slanderers claimed that he tried to gather popular support with a different purpose."
However, the Sarim faction did not control any army nor had financial base. Sarim's power was solely dependent on the king's support, which Cho believed to be steadfast in their mutual pursuit of reforms. However, Cho's unbending character and his frequent remonstrations to Jungjong to support his radical programs began to irritate the king. Even when he disagreed with Cho, Jungjong almost always ended up adopting Cho's petition because Cho would refuse to bend his will, and the Three Offices would threaten to resign en masse. Furthermore, Cho and Hongmun'gwan officials often instructed Jungjong on the ways of king in long lessons. Because Jungjong was not a crown prince, he had not received thorough royal education expected of future king, and Sarim scholars sought to rectify this, believing that only learning could prevent a despot like Yeonsangun. Jungjong began to feel hounded by his subjects and resented it.
The Hungu faction, which sensed Jungjong's irritation with Cho, found an opportunity to strike Sarim faction when Cho decided to go after the "heroes" of the 1506 coup that brought Jungjong to power. According to Cho, many officials who were awarded with special privileges including tax exemptions and huge stipends did not actually contribute much to the coup but gained their status through bribes or familial connections. He petitioned Jungjong to revoke such status from two thirds out of 110 people who received special status in connection with the coup. This move infuriated the Hungu faction, and they soon after proceeded to frame Cho with charges of disloyalty.
According to Annals of Joseon Dynasty, Nam Kon now set out to slander Cho and wrote a phrase "Chu ch'o will become the king" ()" with honey or sugary water on mulberry leaves so that caterpillars ate the leaves, leaving behind such phrases on leaves in the palace. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, September 21, 1568 When two hanja (Chinese) characters "chu"(走) and "ch'o"(肖) are put together, they form a new Hanja character "cho"(趙), Cho's family name. Consort Hong or Consort Park showed the leaf to Jungjong and claimed that this was the heaven's warning that Cho would take the throne himself after eliminating the Hungu faction. Jungjong, who himself rose to the throne through a coup d'état, began to distrust Cho. When the Goryeo dynasty fell and was replaced by the Joseon dynasty, there was a popular saying "Son of wood will gain the country" (). When two Hanja characters meaning wood (木) and son (子) are combined, they form a new character "Yi" (李), which happens to be the family name of Yi Sŏnggye, who deposed the last king of Goryeo and founded the Joseon dynasty. These phrases helped Yi Sŏnggye win popular support for the new dynasty as heaven's will.
When Cho petitioned Jungjong to revoke special privileges of people who falsely contributed to 1506 coup, Jungjong's suspicion was further heightened. Now feeling certain that Jungjong was sufficiently estranged from Cho, Hong Kyŏngju secretly entered the palace to warn King Jungjong that the court was filled with Cho's supporters and that no one could dare oppose him openly. Jungjong dispatched a secret letter to Hong Kyŏngju, expressing his fear that Cho would next go after Hungu officials who did contribute to the coup by questioning legitimacy of the coup and then turn against the king himself. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, April 13, 1520 Jungjong instructed Hungu leaders to kill Cho and then inform him. On November 15, 1519, Hungu leaders entered the palace secretly at night to bypass Royal Secretariat and present to the king written charges against Cho: he and his supporters "deceived the king and put the state in disorder by forming a clique and abusing their positions to promote their supporters while excluding their opponents, and thereby misleading young people to make extremism into habit, causing the young to despise the old, the low-born to disrespect the high-born." Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, November 15, 1519 Inspector General Cho, Justice Minister Kim Jung, and six others were immediately arrested, and they were about to be killed extra-judicially without trial or even investigation. The whole event had appearance of coup d'état except that it was sanctioned by the king.
New Inspector General Yu Un (), who replaced Cho, protested in even stronger terms: "If Cho is guilty of crime, he should be punished in an open and just manner... Instead, Your Majesty is handing out such punishment according to secret words by two people in the middle of night... What is so difficult about punishing few with authority of king that Your Majesty should do so covertly by sending a secret message?... If there is a crime, it should be dealt with clearly and justly, but Your Majesty appeared to trust and be friendly with them on the outside while thinking of eliminating them in mind." Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, November 18, 1519 He was finally dismissed after asking Jungjong to "cut my head to please the wicked people." Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, December 30, 1528 Meanwhile, 150 Sungkyunkwan students stormed the palace to protest Cho's arrest and filled the palace with shouts of entreaties, Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, November 16, 1519, No.13 and later 240 students petitioned to claim Cho's innocence and requested to be imprisoned together. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, November 17, 1519 There was such popular outpouring for Cho's release that it may have increased Jungjong's suspicion and anger.[1], Reformer Cho Kwangjo (in Korean)
Nevertheless, Jungjong was determined to put Cho to death. In the Annals, there was no official demand for Cho's death, not even by Hong Kyŏngju, Nam Kon, and Sim Chŏng, except for a petition by three Seunggyungwan students Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, December 14, 1519 (as opposed to 300 who petitioned for his release). Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, November 19, 1519, No.2 Nam Kon rather urged against executing Cho multiple times even as he was adding more and more names to the list of people to be purged through exile or dismissal. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, December 14, 1519, No.3 Yet Jungjong turned against Cho with the same intensity as when he favored him. He reinstated death sentence by poison for Cho less than a month after their exile. He fired many ministers who entreated on Cho's behalf including Chief State Councillor Chŏng Kwangp'il, Deputy State Councillor An Tang, and even War Minister Yi Changgon, who took part in arresting Sarim officials.
Cho still could not believe Jungjong's heart really turned against him and hoped to be recalled by the king, keeping a north door open each day during exile. Even when soldiers arrived with poison, he was suspicious that Hungu leaders might be trying to kill him without Jungjong's approval. But when he learned that Nam Kon and Sim Chŏng became Vice State Councillor and Minister of Personnel, he realized that Jungjong's change of heart was final. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, December 16, 1519
Before drinking the poison, Cho wrote a poem declaring his loyalty, asked his people not to make his coffin too heavy, and apologized to the owner and servant of the house for not paying his debt and instead showing them a terrible sight and desecrating their house. He then bowed four times toward the north in the direction of palace. (It was customary to pay respect to the king in gratitude for granting poison, which was not an official method of execution and was considered more honorable form of death, instead of beheading or hanging.) When he drank poison, he did not die immediately, and the soldiers tried to strangle him. Cho rebuked them saying that the king intended to spare his neck by sending the poison and requested for another bowl of poison. He died at the age of 37. Later when there was a severe drought in the country, the populace blamed that it was heaven's punishment for killing an innocent seonbi.[2] Weekly Donga, "Dream of reform cut by the conspiracy" December 15, 2009 Many of remaining Sarim scholars left the central government in protest and retreated to rural provinces. Most of Cho's reforms were revoked with his fall.
The Third Literati Purge of 1519 (기묘사화 己卯士禍) was widely viewed as a missed opportunity to reform Joseon Dynasty by later generations because Joseon politics soon degenerated into power struggle among in-laws and relatives of the royal family. A year after the purge, a histographer wrote that bribery and corruption became widespread in the court and local administrations.Annals. November 16, 1520 Later, purge victims were venerated as "Wise Men of Gimyo" (Gimyo is the Korean calendar name for year 1519) while three main instigators (Hong Kyŏngju, Nam Kon, and Sim Chŏng) were collectively called "Evil Three of Gimyo".
Hong Kyŏngju died two years later of natural causes, but Sim Chŏng and Consort Gyeong of the Miryang Pak clan were later executed on a framed charge of cursing the crown prince in a plot concocted by their rival Kim Allo (Queen Inmok’s relative). Kim Allo was killed by rival Yun Wŏnhyŏng (Queen Munjeong's brother), who in turn was purged by King Myeongjong. Sim, Kim, and Yun are all considered some of the most corrupt officials in Joseon dynasty. Nam Kon, who was reportedly deeply saddened at Cho's death, regretted his role in the purge and willed that all his writings be burnt, saying that he "deceived the world with vain name," so no remains of his writing except for one short poem exist although he was one of the most famous writers of his time. Nam Kon, initially of Sarim faction as a disciple of Kim Chong-jik, was a moderate supporter of reforms and supposedly sought Cho's friendship but was rebuffed by Cho and his supporters as a petty Hungu official.Originally consulted from this page in Korean http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LPOD&mid=etc&oid=036&aid=0000009053
Ten years after the purge, King Jungjong again began to advance Sarim scholars by recalling them from exile and reappointing them to the royal court. Nevertheless, Jungjong did not rehabilitate Cho's name to the end despite endless petitions, saying at one time that what happened in 1519 was "neither right nor wrong." Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, April 7, 1544 There is speculation as to what Jungjong really believed about the leaf incident since Jungjong never accused Cho of disloyalty or anything, but pure intentions after first few days of Cho's arrest. From very early on, Jungjong's official position has been that Cho intended well but caused a situation that could only be rectified with a purge. Cho was finally rehabilitated by his son, Injong of Joseon, and was posthumously honored as a chief state councilor by Seonjo of Joseon in 1568.
Today his name remains a byword for reform in Korea, and his example is often raised when there is a controversy about a reform.
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